Pasar Modal

Nama : Utami laelasari
NPM  : 17211234
KELAS : 1EA06

Pengertian Pasar Modal

Manajemen Investasi. Menurut Husnan (2003) adalah pasar untuk berbagai instrumen keuangan jangka panjang yang bisa diperjual-belikan, baik dalam bentuk hutang maupun modal sendiri, baik yang diterbitkan oleh pemerintah, public authorities, maupun perusahaan swasta. Menurut Usman (1990:62), umumnya surat-surat berharga yang diperdagangkan di pasar modal dapat dibedakan menjadi surat berharga bersifat hutang dan surat berharga yang bersifat pemilikan. Surat berharga yang bersifat hutang umumnya dikenal nama obligasi dan surat berharga yang bersifat pemilikan dikenal dengan nama saham. Lebih jauh dapat juga didefinisikan bahwa obligasi adalah bukti pengakuan hutang dari perusahaan, sedangkan saham adalah bukti penyertaan dari perusahaan.
Pengertian pasar modal secara umum adalah suatu sistem keuangan yang terorganisasi, termasuk didalamnya adalah bank-bank komersial dan semua lembaga perantara dibidang keuangan, serta keseluruhan surat-surat berharga yang beredar. Dalam arti sempit, pasar modal adalah suatu pasar (tempat, berupa gedung) yang disiapkan guna memperdagangkan saham-saham, obligasi-obligasi, dan jenis surat berharga lainnya dengan memakai jasa para perantara pedagang efek (Sunariyah, 2000 : 4). Dilihat dari pengertian akan pasar modal diatas, maka jelaslah bahwa pasar modal juga merupakan salah satu cara bagi perusahaan dalam mencari dana dengan menjual hak kepemilikkan perusahaan kepada masyarakat.

Investasi dan Pelaku Pasar Modal
Dewasa ini telah dikembangkan suatu model dalam pengambilan keputusan tentang usul investasi yang berada dalam suatu portofolio, dimana proyek baru yang diusulkan itu dikaitkan dengan proyek-proyek lainnya yang ada dalam suatu perusahaan.
Proyek-proyek investasi itu mempunyai risiko yang tidak independent Awat (1999 : 276).
Harapan keuntungan suatu portofolio adalah rata-rata tertimbang dari harapan keuntungan surat berharga yang diperbandingkan dalam portofolio tersebut. Para pemain utama yang terlibat di pasar modal dan lembaga penunjang yang terlibat langsung dalam proses transaksi antara pemain utama sebagai berikut Kasmir(2001 : 183-189) :
1. Emiten. Perusahaan yang akan melakukan penjualan surat-surat berharga atau melakukan emisi di bursa (disebut emiten). Dalam melakukan emisi, para emiten memiliki berbagai tujuan dan hal ini biasanya sudah tertuang dalam rapat umum pemegang saham (RUPS), antara lain :
a. Perluasan usaha, modal yang diperoleh dari para investor akan digunakan untuk meluaskan bidang usaha, perluasan pasar atau kapasitas produksi.
b. Memperbaiki struktur modal, menyeimbangkan antara modal sendiri dengan modal asing.
c. Mengadakan pengalihan pemegang saham. Pengalihan dari pemegang saham lama kepada pemegang saham baru.
2. Investor. Pemodal yang akan membeli atau menanamkan modalnya di perusahaan yang melakukan emisi (disebut investor). Sebelum membeli surat berharga yang ditawarkan, investor biasanya melakukan penelitian dan analisis tertentu. Penelitian ini mencakup bonafiditas perusahaan, prospek usaha emiten dan analisis lainnya.
Tujuan utama para investor dalam pasar modal antara lain :
a. Memperoleh deviden. Ditujukan kepada keuntungan yang akan diperolehnya berupa bunga yang dibayar oleh emiten dalam bentuk deviden.
b. Kepemilikan perusahaan. Semakin banyak saham yang dimiliki maka semakin besar pengusahaan (menguasai) perusahaan.
c. Berdagang. Saham dijual kembali pada saat harga tinggi, pengharapannya adalah pada saham yang benar-benar dapat menaikkan keuntungannya dari jual beli sahamnya.

3 Lembaga Penunjang. Fungsi lembaga penunjang ini antara lain turut serta mendukung beroperasinya pasar modal, sehingga mempermudah baik emiten maupun investor dalam melakukan berbagai kegiatan yang berkaitan dengan pasar modal. Lembaga penunjang yang memegang peranan penting di dalam mekanisme pasar modal adalah sebagai berikut :
d. Penjamin emisi (underwriter). Lembaga yang menjamin terjualnya saham/obligasi sampai batas waktu tertentu dan dapat memperoleh dana yang diinginkan emiten.
e. Perantara perdagangan efek (broker / pialang). Perantaraan dalam jual beli efek, yaitu perantara antara si penjual (emiten) dengan si pembeli (investor). Kegiatan-kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh broker antara lain meliputi :
1) Memberikan informasi tentang emiten
2) Melakukan penjualan efek kepada investor
f. Perdagangan efek (dealer), berfungsi sebagai :
1) Pedagang dalam jual beli efek
2) Sebagai perantara dalam jual beli efek
g. Penanggung (guarantor). Lembaga penengah antara si pemberi kepercayaan dengan si penerima kepercayaan. Lembaga yang dipercaya oleh investor sebelum menanamkan dananya.
h. Wali amanat (trustee). Jasa wali amanat diperlukan sebagai wali dari si pemberi amanat (investor). Kegiatan wali amanat meliputi :
1) Menilai kekayaan emiten
2) Menganalisis kemampuan emiten
3) Melakukan pengawasan dan perkembangan emiten
4) Memberi nasehat kepada para investor dalam hal yang berkaitan dengan emiten
5) Memonitor pembayaran bunga dan pokok obligasi
6) Bertindak sebagai agen pembayaran
i. Perusahaan surat berharga (securities company). Mengkhususkan diri dalam perdagangan surat berharga yang tercatat di bursa efek. Kegiatan perusahaan surat berharga antara lain :
1) Sebagai pedagang efek
2) Penjamin emisi
3) Perantara perdagangan efek
4) Pengelola dana
j. Perusahaan pengelola dana (investment company). Mengelola surat-surat berharga yang akan menguntungkan sesuai dengan keinginan investor, terdiri dari 2 unit yaitu sebagai pengelola dana dan penyimpan dana.
k. Kantor administrasi efek. Kantor yang membantu para emiten maupun investor dalam rangka memperlancar administrasinya.
1) Membantu emiten dalam rangka emisi
2) Melaksanakan kegiatan menyimpan dan pengalihan hak atas saham para investor
3) Membantu menyusun daftar pemegang saham
4) Mempersiapkan koresponden emiten kepada para pemegang saham
5) Membuat laporan-laporan yang diperlukan

Jenis dan Fungsi Pasar Modal
Pasar modal dibedakan menjadi 2 yaitu pasar perdana dan pasar sekunder :
1. Pasar Perdana ( Primary Market )
Pasar Perdana adalah penawaran saham pertama kali dari emiten kepada para pemodal selama waktu yang ditetapkan oleh pihak penerbit (issuer) sebelum saham tersebut belum diperdagangkan di pasar sekunder. Biasanya dalam jangka waktu sekurang-kurangnya 6 hari kerja. Harga saham di pasar perdana ditetukan oleh penjamin emisi dan perusahaan yang go public berdasarkan analisis fundamental perusahaan yang bersangkutan.
Dalam pasar perdana, perusahaan akan memperoleh dana yang diperlukan. Perusahaan dapat menggunakan dana hasil emisi untuk mengembangkan dan memperluas barang modal untuk memproduksi barang dan jasa. Selain itu dapat juga digunakan untuk melunasi hutang dan memperbaiki struktur pemodalan usaha. Harga saham pasar perdana tetap, pihak yang berwenang adalah penjamin emisi dan pialang, tidak dikenakan komisi dengan pemesanan yang dilakukan melalui agen penjualan.
2. Pasar Sekunder ( Secondary Market )
Pasar sekunder adalah tempat terjadinya transaksi jual-beli saham diantara investor
setelah melewati masa penawaran saham di pasar perdana, dalam waktu selambat-lambatnya 90 hari setelah ijin emisi diberikan maka efek tersebut harus dicatatkan di bursa.
Dengan adanya pasar sekunder para investor dapat membeli dan menjual efek setiap saat. Sedangkan manfaat bagi perusahaan, pasar sekunder berguna sebagai tempat untuk menghimpun investor lembaga dan perseorangan.
Harga saham pasar sekunder berfluktuasi sesuai dengan ekspetasi pasar, pihak yang berwenang adalah pialang, adanya beban komisi untuk penjualan dan pembelian, pemesanannya dilakukan melalui anggota bursa, jangka waktunya tidak terbatas. Tempat terjadinya pasar sekunder di dua tempat, yaitu:
1.Bursa reguler
Bursa reguler adalah bursa efek resmi seperti Bursa Efek Jakarta (BEJ), dan Bursa Efek Surabaya (BES)
2.Bursa paralel
Bursa paralel atau over the counter adalah suatu sistem perdagangan efek yang terorganisir di luar bursa efek resmi, dengan bentuk pasar sekunder yang diatur dan
diselenggarakan oleh Perserikatan Perdagangan Uang dan Efek-efek (PPUE), diawasi dan dibina oleh Bapepam. Over the counter karena pertemuan antara penjual dan pembeli tidak dilakukan di suatu tempat tertentu tetapi tersebar diantara kantor para broker atau dealer.

Fungsi Pasar Modal
Tempat bertemunya pihak yang memiliki dana lebih (lender) dengan pihak yang memerlukan dana jangka panjang tersebut (borrower). Pasar modal mempunyai dua fungsi yaitu ekonomi dan keuangan. Di dalam ekonomi, pasar modal menyediakan fasilitas untuk memindahkan dana dari lender ke borrower.
Dengan menginvestasikan dananya lender mengharapkan adanya imbalan atau return dari penyerahan dana tersebut. Sedangkan bagi borrower, adanya dana dari luar dapat digunakan untuk usaha pengembangan usahanya tanpa menunggu dana dari hasil operasi
perusahaannya. Di dalam keuangan, dengan cara menyediakan dana yang diperlukan oleh borrower dan para lender tanpa harus terlibat langsung dalam kepemilikan aktiva riil

Referensi : http://jurnal-sdm.blogspot.com/2009/06/pasar-modal-definisi-pelaku-jenis-dan.html

Business

NAMA : UTAMI LAELASARI
KELAS : 1EA06
NPM : 17211234

A business (also known as enterprise or firm) is an organization engaged in the trade of goods, services, or both to consumers.[1] Businesses are predominant in capitalist economies, where most of them are privately owned and administered to earn profit to increase the wealth of their owners. Businesses may also be not-for-profit or state-owned. A business owned by multiple individuals may be referred to as a company, although that term also has a more precise meaning.
The etymology of "business" relates to the state of being busy either as an individual or society as a whole, doing commercially viable and profitable work. The term "business" has at least three usages, depending on the scope — the singular usage to mean a particular organization; the generalized usage to refer to a particular market sector, "the music business" and compound forms such as agribusiness; and the broadest meaning, which encompasses all activity by the community of suppliers of goods and services. However, the exact definition of business, like much else in the philosophy of business, is a matter of debate and complexity of meanings.
Basic forms of ownership
See also: Types of business entity
Although forms of business ownership vary by jurisdiction, there are several common forms:
• Sole proprietorship: A sole proprietorship is a business owned by one person for-profit. The owner may operate the business alone or may employ others. The owner of the business has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business.
• Partnership: A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business. The three typical classifications of for-profit partnerships are general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships.
• Corporation: A corporation is a limited liability business that has a separate legal personality from its members. Corporations can be either government-owned or privately-owned, and corporations can organize either for-profit or not-for-profit. A privately-owned, for-profit corporation is owned by shareholders who elect a board of directors to direct the corporation and hire its managerial staff. A privately-owned, for-profit corporation can be either privately held or publicly held.
• Cooperative: Often referred to as a "co-op", a cooperative is a limited liability business that can organize for-profit or not-for-profit. A cooperative differs from a for-profit corporation in that it has members, as opposed to shareholders, who share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives. Cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy.
Classifications


Wall Street, Manhattan is the location of the New York Stock Exchange and is often used as a symbol for American capitalism.
• Agriculture and mining businesses are concerned with the production of raw material, such as plants or minerals.
• Financial businesses include banks and other companies that generate profit through investment and management of capital.
• Information businesses generate profits primarily from the resale of intellectual property and include movie studios, publishers and packaged software companies.
• Manufacturers produce products, from raw materials or component parts, which they then sell at a profit. Companies that make physical goods, such as cars or pipes, are considered manufacturers.
• Real estate businesses generate profit from the selling, renting, and development of properties comprising land, residential homes, and other kinds of buildings.
• Retailers and distributors act as middle-men in getting goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumer, generating a profit as a result of providing sales or distribution services. Most consumer-oriented stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers.
• Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically generate a profit by charging for labor or other services provided to government, other businesses, or consumers. Organizations ranging from house decorators to consulting firms, restaurants, and even entertainers are types of service businesses.
• Transportation businesses deliver goods and individuals from location to location, generating a profit on the transportation costs.
• Utilities produce public services such as electricity or sewage treatment, usually under a government charter.
There are many other divisions and subdivisions of businesses. The authoritative list of business types for North America is generally considered to be the North American Industry Classification System, or NAICS. The equivalent European Union list is the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE).Mill,
Management
The efficient and effective operation of a business, and study of this subject, is called management. The major branches of management are financial management, marketing management, human resource management, strategic management, production management, operations management, service management and information technology management.[citation needed]
Owners engage in business administration either directly or indirectly through the employment of managers. Owner managers, or hired managers administer to three component resources that constitute the business' value or worth: financial resources, capital or tangible resources, and human resources. These resources are administered to in at least five functional areas: legal contracting, manufacturing or service production, marketing, accounting, financing, and human resourcing.[citation needed]
Reforming state enterprises
In recent decades, assets and enterprises that were run by various states have been modeled after business enterprises. In 2003, the People's Republic of China reformed 80% of its state-owned enterprises and modeled them on a company-type management system.[2] Many state institutions and enterprises in China and Russia have been transformed into joint-stock companies, with part of their shares being listed on public stock markets.
Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach[1] focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients. It promotes business effectiveness and efficiency while striving for innovation, flexibility, and integration with technology. BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can therefore be described as a "process optimization process." It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, more effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach.
Organization and government regulation
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Main article: Theory of the firm
Most legal jurisdictions specify the forms of ownership that a business can take, creating a body of commercial law for each type.
The major factors affecting how a business is organized are usually:

The Bank of England in Threadneedle Street, London, England.
• The size and scope of the business firm and its structure, management, and ownership, broadly analyzed in the theory of the firm. Generally a smaller business is more flexible, while larger businesses, or those with wider ownership or more formal structures, will usually tend to be organized as corporations or (less often) partnerships. In addition, a business that wishes to raise money on a stock market or to be owned by a wide range of people will often be required to adopt a specific legal form to do so.
• The sector and country. Private profit-making businesses are different from government-owned bodies. In some countries, certain businesses are legally obliged to be organized in certain ways.
• Limited Liability Companies (LLC), limited liability partnerships, and other specific types of business organization protect their owners or shareholders from business failure by doing business under a separate legal entity with certain legal protections. In contrast, unincorporated businesses or persons working on their own are usually not so protected.
• Tax advantages. Different structures are treated differently in tax law, and may have advantages for this reason.
• Disclosure and compliance requirements. Different business structures may be required to make less or more information public (or report it to relevant authorities), and may be bound to comply with different rules and regulations.
Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability). Most legal jurisdictions allow people to organize such an entity by filing certain charter documents with the relevant Secretary of State or equivalent and complying with certain other ongoing obligations. The relationships and legal rights of shareholders, limited partners, or members are governed partly by the charter documents and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the entity is organized. Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate "person". This means that unless there is misconduct, the owner's own possessions are strongly protected in law if the business does not succeed.
Where two or more individuals own a business together but have failed to organize a more specialized form of vehicle, they will be treated as a general partnership. The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. No paperwork or filing is necessary to create a partnership, and without an agreement, the relationships and legal rights of the partners will be entirely governed by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located.
A single person who owns and runs a business is commonly known as a sole proprietor, whether that person owns it directly or through a formally organized entity.
A few relevant factors to consider in deciding how to operate a business include:
1. General partners in a partnership (other than a limited liability partnership), plus anyone who personally owns and operates a business without creating a separate legal entity, are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business.
2. Generally, corporations are required to pay tax just like "real" people. In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed.
3. In most countries, there are laws which treat small corporations differently than large ones. They may be exempt from certain legal filing requirements or labor laws, have simplified procedures in specialized areas, and have simplified, advantageous, or slightly different tax treatment.
4. To "go public" (sometimes called IPO) -- which basically means to allow a part of the business to be owned by a wider range of investors or the public in general—you must organize a separate entity, which is usually required to comply with a tighter set of laws and procedures. Most public entities are corporations that have sold shares, but increasingly there are also public LLCs that sell units (sometimes also called shares), and other more exotic entities as well (for example, REITs in the USA, Unit Trusts in the UK). However, you cannot take a general partnership "public."
Commercial law
Main article: Commercial law


Offices in the Los Angeles Downtown Financial District
Most commercial transactions are governed by a very detailed and well-established body of rules that have evolved over a very long period of time, it being the case that governing trade and commerce was a strong driving force in the creation of law and courts in Western civilization.
As for other laws that regulate or impact businesses, in many countries it is all but impossible to chronicle them all in a single reference source. There are laws governing treatment of labor and generally relations with employees, safety and protection issues (Health and Safety), anti-discrimination laws (age, gender, disabilities, race, and in some jurisdictions, sexual orientation), minimum wage laws, union laws, workers compensation laws, and annual vacation or working hours time.
In some specialized businesses, there may also be licenses required, either due to special laws that govern entry into certain trades, occupations or professions, which may require special education, or by local governments. Professions that require special licenses range from law and medicine to flying airplanes to selling liquor to radio broadcasting to selling investment securities to selling used cars to roofing. Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business without regard to the type of business involved.
Some businesses are subject to ongoing special regulation. These industries include, for example, public utilities, investment securities, banking, insurance, broadcasting, aviation, and health care providers. Environmental regulations are also very complex and can impact many kinds of businesses in unexpected ways.
Capital


Mexican Stock Exchange in Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City
When businesses need to raise money (called 'capital'), more laws come into play. A highly complex set of laws and regulations govern the offer and sale of investment securities (the means of raising money) in most Western countries. These regulations can require disclosure of a lot of specific financial and other information about the business and give buyers certain remedies. Because "securities" is a very broad term, most investment transactions will be potentially subject to these laws, unless a special exemption is available.
Capital may be raised through private means, by public offer (IPO) on a stock exchange, or in many other ways. Major stock exchanges include the Shanghai Stock Exchange, Singapore Exchange, Hong Kong Stock Exchange, New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq (USA), the London Stock Exchange (UK), the Tokyo Stock Exchange (Japan), Bombay Stock Exchange(India) and so on. Most countries with capital markets have at least one.
Businesses that have gone "public" are subject to extremely detailed and complicated regulation about their internal governance (such as how executive officers' compensation is determined) and when and how information is disclosed to the public and their shareholders. In the United States, these regulations are primarily implemented and enforced by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Other Western nations have comparable regulatory bodies. The regulations are implemented and enforced by the China Securities Regulation Commission (CSRC), in China. In Singapore, the regulation authority is Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), and in Hong Kong, it is Securities and Futures Commission (SFC).
As noted at the beginning, it is impossible to enumerate all of the types of laws and regulations that impact on business today. In fact, these laws have become so numerous and complex, that no business lawyer can learn them all, forcing increasing specialization among corporate attorneys. It is not unheard of for teams of 5 to 10 attorneys to be required to handle certain kinds of corporate transactions, due to the sprawling nature of modern regulation. Commercial law spans general corporate law, employment and labor law, health-care law, securities law, M&A law (who specialize in acquisitions), tax law, ERISA law (ERISA in the United States governs employee benefit plans), food and drug regulatory law, intellectual property law (specializing in copyrights, patents, trademarks and such), telecommunications law, and more.
Intellectual property
Businesses often have important "intellectual property" that needs protection from competitors for the company to stay profitable. This could require patents, copyrights, trademarks or preservation of trade secrets. Most businesses have names, logos and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking. Patents and copyrights in the United States are largely governed by federal law, while trade secrets and trademarking are mostly a matter of state law. Because of the nature of intellectual property, a business needs protection in every jurisdiction in which they are concerned about competitors. Many countries are signatories to international treaties concerning intellectual property, and thus companies registered in these countries are subject to national laws bound by these treaties. In order to protect trade secrets, companies may require employees to sign non-compete clauses which will impose limitations on an employees interactions with stakeholders, and competitors.

Referensi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business?utm_source=wordtwit&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=wordtwit

DIRECT TO INDIRECT

NAMA : UTAMI LAELASARI
KELAS : 1EA06
NPM : 17211234


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